Mains power systems
Main article: mains power systems
Worldwide, many different mains power systems are found for the operation of household and light commercial electrical appliances and lighting. The different systems are primarily characterized by their
Voltage
Frequency
Plugs and sockets (a.k.a. receptacles or outlets)
but also by their
Earthing system (grounding)
Protection against overcurrent damage (e.g., due to short circuit), electric shock, and fire hazards
Parameter tolerances
All these parameters vary among regions. The voltages are generally in the range 100–240 (always expressed as root-mean-square voltage). The two commonly used frequencies are 50 Hz and 60 Hz.
Some territories use standards different from those of the countries they belong to (such as Hong Kong in China). Foreign enclaves, such as large industrial plants or overseas military bases, may have a different standard voltage and frequency from the surrounding areas. Some city areas may use standards different from that of the surrounding countryside. Regions in an effective state of anarchy may have no central electrical authority, with electric power provided by incompatible private sources.
Many other combinations of voltage and utility frequency, including direct current, were formerly used, with frequencies between 25 Hz and 133 Hz and voltages from 100 to 250 V. The modern standard combinations of 230 V/50 Hz and 120 V/60 Hz did not apply in the first few decades of the 20th century and are still not universal.
Industrial plants with polyphase power systems will have different, higher, voltages installed for large equipment (and different sockets and plugs), but the common voltages listed here would still be found for lighting and portable equipment.
Building wiring
In most countries, household power is single-phase electric power, with two or three wired contacts at each outlet.
The live wire (also known as phase, hot or active contact), carries alternating current from the power grid to the household.
The neutral wire completes the electrical circuit.
The earth wire or ground connects cases of equipment to earth ground as a protection against insulation failures. Electromagnetic interference filters and surge protectors dispose of unwanted electric charges via the earth wire.
For more details on this topic, see Ground and neutral.
Various earthing systems are used to ensure that the ground and neutral wires have the correct voltages, to prevent shocks when touching grounded objects.
In some installations, there may be two live conductors which carry alternating currents in a three wire single-phase circuit.
Small portable electrical equipment is connected to the power supply through flexible cables terminated in a plug, which is then inserted into a fixed receptacle (socket). Larger household electrical equipment and industrial equipment may be permanently wired to the fixed wiring of the building. For example, in North American homes a window-mounted self-contained air conditioner unit would be connected to a wall plug, whereas the central air conditioning for a whole home would be permanently wired. Larger plug and socket combinations are used for industrial equipment carrying larger currents, higher voltages, or three phase electric power.
Circuit breakers and fuses are used to detect short circuits between the live and neutral wires, or the drawing of more current than the wires are rated to handle to prevent overheating and fire. These protective devices are usually mounted in a central panel in a building, but some wiring systems also provide an over current protection device at the socket or within the plug.
Residual-current devices, also known as ground-fault circuit interrupters and appliance leakage current interrupters, are used to detect ground faults - leakage of current to someplace other than the neutral and live wires (like the ground wire or a person). When a ground fault is detected, the device quickly cuts off the circuit.
Voltage levels
All European and most African and Asian countries use a supply that is within 10% of 230 V, whereas Japan, North America and some parts of South America use a voltage between 100 and 127 V.
A distinction should be made between the voltage at the point of supply (nominal system voltage) and the voltage rating of the equipment (utilization voltage). Typically the utilization voltage is 3% to 5% lower than the nominal system voltage; for example, a nominal 208 V supply system will be connected to motors with "200 V" on their nameplates. This allows for the voltage drop between equipment and supply. Voltages in this article are the nominal supply voltages and equipment used on these systems will carry slightly lower nameplate voltages.
Voltage tolerances are for steady-state operation. Momentary heavy loads, or switching operations in the power distribution network, may cause short-term deviations out of the tolerance band. In general, power supplies derived from large networks with many sources will be more stable than those supplied to an isolated community with perhaps only a single generator.
The choice of utilization voltage is governed more by tradition than by optimization of the distribution system. In theory a 230 V distribution system will use less conductor material to deliver a given quantity of power. Incandescent light bulbs for 120 V systems are more efficient and rugged than 230 V bulbs, while large heating appliances can use smaller conductors at 230 V for the same output rating. Practically speaking, few household appliances use anything like the full capacity of the outlet to which they are connected. Minimum wire sizes for hand-held or portable equipment is usually restricted by the mechanical strength of the conductors. One may observe that both 230 V system countries and 120 V system countries have extensive penetration of electrical appliances in homes. National electrical codes prescribe wiring methods intended to minimize the risk of electric shock or fire.
Many areas using (nominally) 120 V make use of three-wire, single-phase 240 V systems to supply large appliances. Three-phase systems can be connected to give various combinations of voltage, suitable for use by different classes of equipment. Where both single-phase and three-phase loads are served by an electrical system, the system may be labelled with both voltages such as 120/208 or 230/400 V, to show the line-to-neutral voltage and the line-to-line voltage. Large loads are connected for the higher voltage. Other three-phase voltages, up to 830 Volts, are occasionally used for special purpose systems such as oil well pumps.
Following voltage harmonization all electricity supply within the European Union is now nominally 230 V ± 10% at 50 Hz . For a transition period (1995–2008), countries who previously used 220 V will use a narrower asymmetric tolerance range of 230 V +6% −10% and those (like the UK) who previously used 240 V use now 230 V +10% −6%. Note that no change in voltage is required by either system as both 220V and 240V fall within the lower 230 V tolerance bands (230 V ±6%). In practice this means that countries such as the UK that previously supplied 240 V continue to do so, and those that previously supplied 220 V continue to do so. However equipment should be designed to accept any voltages within the specified range.
In the United States and Canada, national standards specify that the nominal voltage at the source should be 120 V and allow a range of 114 to 126 V (-5% to +5%). Historically 110, 115 and 117 volts have been used at different times and places in North America. Main power is sometimes spoken of as "one-ten"; however, 120 is the nominal voltage.
As of the year 2000, Australia has converted to 230 V as the nominal standard with a tolerance of +10% -6%., this superseding the old 240 V standard, AS2926-1987. As in the UK, 240 V is within the allowable limits and "240 volt" spoken as "two forty volt" remains a synonym for mains in Australian and British English.
In Japan, the electrical power supply to households is at 100 V. Eastern and northern parts of Honshū (including Tokyo) and Hokkaidō have a frequency of 50 Hz, whereas western Honshū (including Nagoya, Osaka, and Hiroshima), Shikoku, Kyūshū and Okinawa operate at 60 Hz. To accommodate the difference, appliances marketed in Japan can often be switched between the two frequencies.
Large industrial motors (say, more than 250 HP or 150 kW) may operate on medium voltage. On 60Hz systems a standard for medium voltage equipment is 2300/4160V whereas 3300V is the common standard for 50Hz systems.
History of voltage and frequency
Main article: mains power systems
Worldwide, many different mains power systems are found for the operation of household and light commercial electrical appliances and lighting. The different systems are primarily characterized by their
Voltage
Frequency
Plugs and sockets (a.k.a. receptacles or outlets)
but also by their
Earthing system (grounding)
Protection against overcurrent damage (e.g., due to short circuit), electric shock, and fire hazards
Parameter tolerances
All these parameters vary among regions. The voltages are generally in the range 100–240 (always expressed as root-mean-square voltage). The two commonly used frequencies are 50 Hz and 60 Hz.
Some territories use standards different from those of the countries they belong to (such as Hong Kong in China). Foreign enclaves, such as large industrial plants or overseas military bases, may have a different standard voltage and frequency from the surrounding areas. Some city areas may use standards different from that of the surrounding countryside. Regions in an effective state of anarchy may have no central electrical authority, with electric power provided by incompatible private sources.
Many other combinations of voltage and utility frequency, including direct current, were formerly used, with frequencies between 25 Hz and 133 Hz and voltages from 100 to 250 V. The modern standard combinations of 230 V/50 Hz and 120 V/60 Hz did not apply in the first few decades of the 20th century and are still not universal.
Industrial plants with polyphase power systems will have different, higher, voltages installed for large equipment (and different sockets and plugs), but the common voltages listed here would still be found for lighting and portable equipment.
Building wiring
In most countries, household power is single-phase electric power, with two or three wired contacts at each outlet.
The live wire (also known as phase, hot or active contact), carries alternating current from the power grid to the household.
The neutral wire completes the electrical circuit.
The earth wire or ground connects cases of equipment to earth ground as a protection against insulation failures. Electromagnetic interference filters and surge protectors dispose of unwanted electric charges via the earth wire.
For more details on this topic, see Ground and neutral.
Various earthing systems are used to ensure that the ground and neutral wires have the correct voltages, to prevent shocks when touching grounded objects.
In some installations, there may be two live conductors which carry alternating currents in a three wire single-phase circuit.
Small portable electrical equipment is connected to the power supply through flexible cables terminated in a plug, which is then inserted into a fixed receptacle (socket). Larger household electrical equipment and industrial equipment may be permanently wired to the fixed wiring of the building. For example, in North American homes a window-mounted self-contained air conditioner unit would be connected to a wall plug, whereas the central air conditioning for a whole home would be permanently wired. Larger plug and socket combinations are used for industrial equipment carrying larger currents, higher voltages, or three phase electric power.
Circuit breakers and fuses are used to detect short circuits between the live and neutral wires, or the drawing of more current than the wires are rated to handle to prevent overheating and fire. These protective devices are usually mounted in a central panel in a building, but some wiring systems also provide an over current protection device at the socket or within the plug.
Residual-current devices, also known as ground-fault circuit interrupters and appliance leakage current interrupters, are used to detect ground faults - leakage of current to someplace other than the neutral and live wires (like the ground wire or a person). When a ground fault is detected, the device quickly cuts off the circuit.
Voltage levels
All European and most African and Asian countries use a supply that is within 10% of 230 V, whereas Japan, North America and some parts of South America use a voltage between 100 and 127 V.
A distinction should be made between the voltage at the point of supply (nominal system voltage) and the voltage rating of the equipment (utilization voltage). Typically the utilization voltage is 3% to 5% lower than the nominal system voltage; for example, a nominal 208 V supply system will be connected to motors with "200 V" on their nameplates. This allows for the voltage drop between equipment and supply. Voltages in this article are the nominal supply voltages and equipment used on these systems will carry slightly lower nameplate voltages.
Voltage tolerances are for steady-state operation. Momentary heavy loads, or switching operations in the power distribution network, may cause short-term deviations out of the tolerance band. In general, power supplies derived from large networks with many sources will be more stable than those supplied to an isolated community with perhaps only a single generator.
The choice of utilization voltage is governed more by tradition than by optimization of the distribution system. In theory a 230 V distribution system will use less conductor material to deliver a given quantity of power. Incandescent light bulbs for 120 V systems are more efficient and rugged than 230 V bulbs, while large heating appliances can use smaller conductors at 230 V for the same output rating. Practically speaking, few household appliances use anything like the full capacity of the outlet to which they are connected. Minimum wire sizes for hand-held or portable equipment is usually restricted by the mechanical strength of the conductors. One may observe that both 230 V system countries and 120 V system countries have extensive penetration of electrical appliances in homes. National electrical codes prescribe wiring methods intended to minimize the risk of electric shock or fire.
Many areas using (nominally) 120 V make use of three-wire, single-phase 240 V systems to supply large appliances. Three-phase systems can be connected to give various combinations of voltage, suitable for use by different classes of equipment. Where both single-phase and three-phase loads are served by an electrical system, the system may be labelled with both voltages such as 120/208 or 230/400 V, to show the line-to-neutral voltage and the line-to-line voltage. Large loads are connected for the higher voltage. Other three-phase voltages, up to 830 Volts, are occasionally used for special purpose systems such as oil well pumps.
Following voltage harmonization all electricity supply within the European Union is now nominally 230 V ± 10% at 50 Hz . For a transition period (1995–2008), countries who previously used 220 V will use a narrower asymmetric tolerance range of 230 V +6% −10% and those (like the UK) who previously used 240 V use now 230 V +10% −6%. Note that no change in voltage is required by either system as both 220V and 240V fall within the lower 230 V tolerance bands (230 V ±6%). In practice this means that countries such as the UK that previously supplied 240 V continue to do so, and those that previously supplied 220 V continue to do so. However equipment should be designed to accept any voltages within the specified range.
In the United States and Canada, national standards specify that the nominal voltage at the source should be 120 V and allow a range of 114 to 126 V (-5% to +5%). Historically 110, 115 and 117 volts have been used at different times and places in North America. Main power is sometimes spoken of as "one-ten"; however, 120 is the nominal voltage.
As of the year 2000, Australia has converted to 230 V as the nominal standard with a tolerance of +10% -6%., this superseding the old 240 V standard, AS2926-1987. As in the UK, 240 V is within the allowable limits and "240 volt" spoken as "two forty volt" remains a synonym for mains in Australian and British English.
In Japan, the electrical power supply to households is at 100 V. Eastern and northern parts of Honshū (including Tokyo) and Hokkaidō have a frequency of 50 Hz, whereas western Honshū (including Nagoya, Osaka, and Hiroshima), Shikoku, Kyūshū and Okinawa operate at 60 Hz. To accommodate the difference, appliances marketed in Japan can often be switched between the two frequencies.
Large industrial motors (say, more than 250 HP or 150 kW) may operate on medium voltage. On 60Hz systems a standard for medium voltage equipment is 2300/4160V whereas 3300V is the common standard for 50Hz systems.
History of voltage and frequency
The system of three-phase alternating current electrical generation, transmission, and distribution was developed in the 19th century by Nikola Tesla, George Westinghouse and others. Thomas Edison developed direct current (DC) systems at 110 V and this was claimed to be safer. For more information about the early battles between proponents of AC and DC supply systems see War of Currents. The 110 volt level was chosen to make high-resistance carbon filament lamps practical and economically competitive with gas lighting. While higher voltages would reduce the current required for a given quantity of lamps, the filaments would become increasingly fragile and short-lived; Edison selected 100 volts as a compromise between distribution costs and lamp costs. Generation was maintained at 110 volts to allow for a voltage drop between generator and lamp.
In the 1880s only carbon-filament incandescent lamps were available, designed for a voltage of around 100 volts. Later metal filament lamps became feasible. In 1899, the Berliner Elektricitäts-Werke (BEW), a Berlin electrical utility, decided to greatly increase its distribution capacity by switching to 220 volt nominal distribution, taking advantage of the higher voltage capability of metal filament lamps. The company was able to offset the cost of converting the customer's equipment by the resulting saving in distribution conductors cost. This became the model for electrical distribution in Germany and the rest of Europe and the 220-volt system became common. North American practice remained with voltages near 110 volts for lamps.
In 1883 Edison patented a three wire distribution system to allow DC generation plants to serve a wider radius of customers. This saved on copper costs since lamps were connected in series on a 220 volt system, with a neutral conductor connected between to carry any unbalance between the two sub-circuits. This was later adapted to AC circuits. Most lighting and small appliances ran on 120 V, while big appliances could be connected to 240 V. This system saved copper and was backward-compatible with existing appliances. Also, the original plugs could be used with the revised system.
Main article: Utility frequency
At the end of the 19th century, Westinghouse in the US decided on 60 Hz and AEG in Germany decided on 50 Hz, eventually leading to the world being mostly divided into two frequency camps. Most 60 Hz systems are nominally 120 Volts and most 50 Hz nominally 230 Volts.
Voltage regulation
To maintain the voltage at the customer's service within the acceptable range, electrical distribution utilities use regulating equipment at electrical substations or along the distribution line. At a substation, the step-down transformer will have an automatic on-load tap changer, allowing the ratio between transmission voltage and distribution voltage to be adjusted in steps. For long (several kilometers) rural distribution circuits, automatic voltage regulators may be mounted on poles of the distribution line. These are autotransformers again with on-load tapchangers to adjust the ratio depending on the observed voltage changes.
At each customer's service, the step-down transformer has up to five taps to allow some range of adjustment, usually ±5% of the nominal voltage. Since these taps are not automatically controlled, they are only used to adjust the long-term average voltage at the service and do not regulate the voltage seen by the utility customer.
In the 1880s only carbon-filament incandescent lamps were available, designed for a voltage of around 100 volts. Later metal filament lamps became feasible. In 1899, the Berliner Elektricitäts-Werke (BEW), a Berlin electrical utility, decided to greatly increase its distribution capacity by switching to 220 volt nominal distribution, taking advantage of the higher voltage capability of metal filament lamps. The company was able to offset the cost of converting the customer's equipment by the resulting saving in distribution conductors cost. This became the model for electrical distribution in Germany and the rest of Europe and the 220-volt system became common. North American practice remained with voltages near 110 volts for lamps.
In 1883 Edison patented a three wire distribution system to allow DC generation plants to serve a wider radius of customers. This saved on copper costs since lamps were connected in series on a 220 volt system, with a neutral conductor connected between to carry any unbalance between the two sub-circuits. This was later adapted to AC circuits. Most lighting and small appliances ran on 120 V, while big appliances could be connected to 240 V. This system saved copper and was backward-compatible with existing appliances. Also, the original plugs could be used with the revised system.
Main article: Utility frequency
At the end of the 19th century, Westinghouse in the US decided on 60 Hz and AEG in Germany decided on 50 Hz, eventually leading to the world being mostly divided into two frequency camps. Most 60 Hz systems are nominally 120 Volts and most 50 Hz nominally 230 Volts.
Voltage regulation
To maintain the voltage at the customer's service within the acceptable range, electrical distribution utilities use regulating equipment at electrical substations or along the distribution line. At a substation, the step-down transformer will have an automatic on-load tap changer, allowing the ratio between transmission voltage and distribution voltage to be adjusted in steps. For long (several kilometers) rural distribution circuits, automatic voltage regulators may be mounted on poles of the distribution line. These are autotransformers again with on-load tapchangers to adjust the ratio depending on the observed voltage changes.
At each customer's service, the step-down transformer has up to five taps to allow some range of adjustment, usually ±5% of the nominal voltage. Since these taps are not automatically controlled, they are only used to adjust the long-term average voltage at the service and do not regulate the voltage seen by the utility customer.
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